CHAPTER 02: AGRICULTURE

Crop cultivation called arable farming and an animal keeping called pastoral farming or livestock husbandry. Agriculture refers to the human activity that involves the cultivation of crops and keeping animals. Agriculture is also defined as the practice of cultivating land, growing crops as well rearing animals. Agriculture involves the following scope or coverage:

a)      Small scale agriculture (subsistence agriculture)

b)      Large scale agriculture (surplus agriculture)

A.  SMALL SCALE AGRICULTURE

Small scale agriculture is the farming system that takes place on a small area (to produce food crops, cash crops and livestock keeping). This practiced for subsistence and not for commercial purpose. Small scale agriculture (Farming System) has the following characteristics:

   1. Local superstition beliefs dominate among farmers.

   2. There are poor farming methods involved.

   3. Poor transport services.

   4. The capital used is small (no intensive capital investment).

   5. There are poor storage facilities.

   6. Low or no uses of chemicals to control diseases and pests.

   7. Farmers they use organic manure not industrial manure.

   8. Farmers can grow perennial or annual crops.

   9. The areas are small; usually the family labor is used.

   10. Most of the crops are starchy and there is low production.  

   12. Simple tools are used, for example, the laud hoe and ox-drawn ploughs.

   13. Varied poor methods of cultivation used, like shifting cultivation, intensive and sedentary subsistence farming.

   14. Food crops such as maize, beans, millet, fruits and vegetables are the main types of crop grown.

Advantages of small-scale farming system (agriculture):

1. It is cheap because uses simple tools, with local manure and seeds.
2. It provides foods required to feed the population for example, maize, millet and wheat.
3. It has encouraged the development of settlement among the farmers.
4. It needs a small area of land, hence encourages the environmental conservation aspect.
5. It provides raw materials for the industries like cotton, tea and coffee.
6. Products like cotton, tea and coffee brings about foreign currencies when are exported.
7. Farmers grow a variety of food crops and rear animals on a single plot.
8. The cost of labor is low because it mainly involves family members.
9. The different crops grown on a single plot make it easy to control pests since a single pest cannot attack all the crop varieties.
10. Since land mainly inherited, individuals acquire land at little or no cost.  

Disadvantages of Small-scale Agriculture:

1. There is low production due to the use of simple tools and low diseases control.
2. Involves poor methods of agriculture that lead to environmental degradation like erosion and deforestation.
3. Poor quality of products due to use of poor farming methods and mechanization.
4. Low production encourages poverty among the farmers and their families.
5. Poor use of fertilizers can cause soil exhaustion.
6. Poor storage facilities, lead to losses of agricultural products.
7. This type of agriculture is highly dependent on favorable weather conditions. Bad weather condition results in great losses of crops.
8. Due to the small size of the farms it is not easy to invest effectively by using machines, instead of relying on manual labor.
9. The intensive cultivations of the land make the soil infertile after a while. This is especially so where farmers do not use manure or fertilizer.
10. Low crop yields and the small farm sizes results in small amounts of production.

Rapid Population Growth and Agriculture

Rapid population growth refers to fast increase in the number of people in an area. Rapid population grown has the following effects in small-scale agriculture:

1. It leads to the land degradation due to the clearing of vegetation and over cultivation.
2. There occurs shortage of food leading to the starvation or famine.
3. It leads to the pressure for land; hence, the needs of the people do not cope with the size of the available land. This leads to shortage of arable land.
4. Amount of rainfall decreases because of the clearing of vegetation for settlement and agricultural activities.
5. May cause for the shortage of food due to the high population leading to poor health condition among the farmers, hence agricultural activities may demise or decline.
6. Over cultivation of the land, the soil may lose soil fertility, as population increases, people need to produce more to cater their needs.
7. Due to rapid population growth, workers are cheap and easily available.
8. Small-scale farmers may change from subsistence farming to commercial farming to meet the needs of the growing population.

Ways of Improving the Subsistence Small-scale Agriculture:

1. The farmers should be educated in order that they can acquire new technology easily.
2. There should be control of population increase in order that, the number of people can match with the size and the potential of the land available.
3. Farmers should be encouragement to use modern farming techniques such as the use of machines and new varieties of seeds.
4. There should be an improvement in infrastructure like roads and railways in an area.
5. Peasants should be given loans to invest in agriculture and introduce irrigation schemes where rainfall is unreliable.
6. Construction of better storage facilities and encouraging farmers to form cooperatives so that they can be able to organize agriculture smoothly and get assistance easily.
7. Communities and families should encourage their members to seek and buy land away from their   ancestral homes. This will help to reduce land fragmentation.
8. Since women are the main food producers in small-scale agriculture, they need to be empowered in family and community manners so as to improve production.
9. Measures should have to be taken to reduce the rate of population growth. This can be done through family planning education, discouraging polygamy and emphasizing the need to have small families that can be sustained on the available land resources.

Women Empowerment in Agriculture

Women empowerment can be defined as the process of giving women more power and equal right as men in all matter of political, social and economic decision making and participation.

Women empowerment in agriculture is the process of giving women more power and right to have control over the resources and more ability or liberty to participate in the agricultural activities. The following are the importance of empowering women in agriculture:

1. It promotes their abilities so that they can be able to participate more effectively in agriculture and other activities.
2. Gives women more confidence to be free in exposing out their own ideas pertaining to agricultural development.
3. It speeds up the development of agriculture by making women more efficient than before through making woman responsible in taking care on crops.
4. Women can become independent; lead their life by facing the problems confidently patterning to agricultural matters.
5. It can enable women to create additional resources where resources were not enough in agricultural production.

Ways of Improving the Status of Women in Agriculture:

1. They have to be given enough opportunity for getting agricultural education in different level of education.
2. Women should be given right to own and inherit the land. 
3. They should be encouraged to form some agricultural cooperations for easy assistance and loans provision
4. Women should be involved in decision-making process in the society, pertaining in agricultural activities.
5. Men also should be encouraged to cooperate with women in all agricultural activities.

Examples and Types of Subsistence Agricultural System

1. Shifting Cultivation.

In this, a peasant keeps on shifting from one place to another because of exhaustion of the land fertility in the system. This method of cultivation commonly practiced in tropical Africa, Central America and South East of Asia. The following are the features or characteristics of shifting cultivation:  

(1)   Simple tools are used in cultivation e.g. hand hoes, machetes.  

(2)   Sites or farms selected from virgin forests.

(3)   It involves slashing and burning of grass and bushes.

(4)   Most crops grown are starchy, such as maize, sorghum finger millet and bulrush millet.

(5)   It takes place where there is low population and extensive area.

(6)   The cultivation does not have permanent settlements.

(7)   There is low production enough for food.

Advantages or Merits of Shifting Cultivation:

(1)   The system is not costly since simple tools are used.

(2)   A farmer assured of fertile soil due to the used of the virgin land.

(3)   Food production assured because the family needs to obtain food rather than selling.

(4)   Ashes obtained from burning bushes and forests add fertility or humus to the soil.

(5)   No labor cost, only member of the family are involved. 

Disadvantages or Demerits of Shifting Cultivation:

(1)   There is low yield and hence no surplus of production.

(2)   It is not for the farmers to sell the products, because it is hand to mouse agriculture.

(3)   It cannot take place where there is high population.

(4)   The use of fire kills microorganisms in the soil.

(5)   There poor diets to the farmers since most of the crops grown are starchy in nature.

(6)   It encourages deforestation due to felling of trees and poor method of cultivation.

2. Small Scale Sedentary Agriculture.

This farming system takes place when a farmer settled without moving from place to place. Examples of small-scale sedentary agriculture are bush fallowing and intensive subsistence farming. Small scale sedentary agriculture has the following advantages:

(1)   It encourages the conservation of the land forest since farmers do not move from one place to another.

(2)   A farmer can do several activities apart from agriculture due do the establishment of permanent settlement.

(3)   It facilitates the development of technology since the farmers are settled and can easily be assisted.

(4)   It can take place where there is high population.

(5)   The production is higher than in shifting cultivation.

(6)   A farmer can get balanced diet and hence the health of the family members tends be good.

(7)   There is somehow technological advancement in agricultural activities.

Disadvantage of Sedentary Agriculture:

1. Sedentary Agriculture may lead to the loss of fertility of the land due to over cultivation on one area.
2. Too much use of modern fertilizers leads to land degradation.

3. Bush Fallowing

Bush fallowing refers to the system of agriculture whereby a farmer leaves idle the exhausted piece of land for a certain period of time in order to regain (replenish) its fertility.  Merits of bush fallowing are:

(1)   The system is not costly since the tools used are simple.

(2)   Farmers do not waste of energy moving from one place to another, because farms are rotated.

(3)   Fallowing allows regeneration of grass and bushes, which help in conserving the soil and replenishing its fertility.

(4)   A piece of land that lies under fallow can be cultivated for a long time due to the use of rotation in the piece of lands available.

(5)   Fallowing of the piece of land helps in controlling disease and pests.

(6)   Production is higher than in shifting cultivation.

(7)   Permanent settlement among farmers initially starts to development.

(8)   Technological advancement starts to develop in bush fallowing.

Demerits of Bush Fallowing:

(1)   The system requires that a farmer should have a large area for cultivation due to land rotation from year to year.

(2)   In high population the system cannot take place because of land rotation from year to year.

(3)   There is low yield because of the use of simple tools such as hoes and machetes during cultivation.

(4)   Inadequate use of chemical makes difficult to control diseases especially when fallowing takes place for short time.

(5)   Since production is low, farmers fail to produce for commercial purpose; hence, they fail to generate capital.

                                            B. LARGE-SCALE AGRICULTURE

Large-scale agriculture is the farming system, which takes place on a large area like sisal plantation, tea plantation, rubber plantation and ranching. This type of agriculture carried out on large tracts of land for commercial purposes. Farmers aim at maximizing profit by selling crops. Characteristics of large-scale agricultural system are:

(1)   Production is high and in good quality of food.

(2)   It needs a lot of capital for investing.

(3)   The farmers are skilled.

(4)   It needs cheap and efficient transport system from the farms to the market and industrial center.

(5)   It is monoculture in nature.

(6)   High scale in the use of chemicals.

(7)   Some areas in the farm are irrigated instead of depending on rainfall only.

(8)   It takes place on a large area and the farms are large. Example plantation and ranches.

(9)   High technological advancement.

Forms of Large-scale Agriculture

Large-scale agriculture (large-scale arable) has the following main two forms:

      (i) Plantation agriculture

      (ii) Extensive mechanized grain cultivation

(I) Plantation Agriculture

It is a large-scale commercial farming in which cash crops are grown by using mechanized methods. Plantation is also referred as estate. This system of agriculture if it is specialized on one grown crop is called monoculture. Plantations may be grown crops like coffee, sisal, tee, cocoa, cotton, sugar cane, palm oil, cloves, and pyrethrum. Characteristic of plantation agriculture are:

1.      It is monoculture by nature.

2.      It is commercial oriented.

3.      Farms are owned by government, co-operatives, large companies or wealthy individuals.

4.      Skilled labors are hired to manage crop production while unskilled labors hired during planting, weeding and harvesting seasons.

5.      Mechanization is common during activities, such as land preparation, planting, spraying and harvesting.

6.      There is wide use of fertilizers to improve soil fertility and in turn increase production.

Requirements for Establishing Plantation Agriculture:

(1)   There should be enough capital.

(2)   Reliable supply of both skilled and unskilled labors.

(3)   There should be ready market.

(4)   There should be reliable transport system.

(5)   There should be large area to allow this agricultural system to take place.

(6)   There should be efficient management.

(7)   There should be reliable storage facilities and efficient processing unit

(8)   There should be conducive climate depending on the nature of crops to be grown.

Advantages of Plantation Agriculture:

(1)   The products are of high quality due to the use of advanced technology.

(2)   There is surplus production due to the use of advanced technology and high deceases control. 

(3)   There is high efficiency of the use of machinery.

(4)   It creates employment to the people due to the high number of labors needed, hence reducing the problem of unemployment.

(5)   It encourages the development of industries due to the huge amount of products supplied to the industries.

(6)   Promotes development of transport system.

(7)   It promotes the improvement of living standard of people.

Disadvantages of Plantation Agriculture:

1. It is monoculture in nature, hence encourages soil degradation.
2. In establishment of plantation agriculture large areas are cleared leading to desertification.
3. Most crops are for commercial purpose hence can lead to shortage of food.
4. It cannot be carried out where there is high population.
5. Local people are often exploited since they work much and are paid low wages.
6. It encourages labor migration leading to the decline in labor supply in other agricultural sectors like food crops production.
7. It easily suffers from price fluctuation in the world market.
8. It needs huge capital in its operation and establishment.

(II) Extensive Mechanized Grain Cultivation

Like plantation agriculture, this also involves the cultivation of crops on large tracts of land. Grains or cereals are the main crops grown in this type of large-scale agriculture; for examples; wheat, maize, barley, rye and oats. Extensive mechanized grain cultivation has the following major crops as grown in large scale agriculture:

1. Coffee.

The coffee plant first identified in the south highlands of Ethiopia in the district of kaftans. The plant taken to Saudi Arabia where its beans were roasted and made into a drink. It then spread to the Middle East and later introduced to Europe by the Turks. The Dutch later introduced it to their colony of Indonesia. Missionaries introduced coffee in Tanzania from Reunion Island. Coffee is a beverage crop and is in different species. There three main types of coffees, namely:

Ä  Arabica

Ä  Robusta

Ä  Liberia

Arabica: Arabica coffee is the most commercially important in the world trade. It originated from the mocha coffee indigenous to the Arabian Peninsula.

Robusta: Is the West African variety. It is hardy and yields poor quality coffee. It can survive in drier climate and is disease-resistance.

Liberia: Is also hardy and disease-resistant species. It is indigenous to Liberia and suited to lowland rather than to upland condition. It gives heavy yields of moderate-quality coffee.

Conditions for Growing Coffee:

1.      Coffee requires rainfall of about 1500mm to 2550mm.

2.      Constant high temperatures of around 32⁰c (i.e. 14⁰ – 26⁰ or 57⁰f – 78⁰f) 

3.      It needs a lot of labor especially during the harvesting time.

4.      Altitudes of between 900m to 2100m above sea level are suitable for coffee growing (highland are not suitable).

5.      It can grow in different types of soil but the suitable soil should be acidic with pH of 5.3 to 6.0.

6.      Shade is necessary to prevent direct sunlight from affecting the trees when they are still young.

Preparation of Farm for Coffee Cultivation:

1.      The field to be planted needs to be prepared at least six months in advance.

2.      Holes for the coffee plats are dug at least three months in advance and should be at least 0.6 x 0.6m and 0.6m deep.

3.      The rows are normally 1.7m apart and the spacing can be 3.0m x 2.4m (or 2.7m x 1.4m).

Ways in Which Coffee Can be Planted and Cared

Coffee is always propagated by seeds. Then seeds should be from high yielding trees or highbred seed from coffee research stations. The seeds are planted in a nursery which should be well sheltered from divest sunlight and should have light deep soil that is also well drained. Tree shades should be avoided.

The seedbeds watered every day for the first two weeks, after then to twice week germination takes 6 to 8 weeks. When seedling forms a pair of true leaves, they are transplanted into seedling beds. The seedlings are ready for transplanting in the fields when they are about 0.2 to 0.4m tall.

About 2 to 3 weeks before transplanting the seedling into the fields, the top soil from each hole in the field mixed with a tin full of cattle dung or compost manure and a little super phosphate fertilizer during the long rains season. Mulch should be added around the trees to protect the roots from sun or by sheltering with some shade from banana leaves or three branches.

Pruning is done according to the desired number of stems to be allowed to grow. If is single stem, the main stem is left to grow to a height of 69cm then it is cut at a height of about 53cm. It may be desired to keep two or more main stems. This is called multiple stem pruning. A single or two suckers is selected and left to grow up to 130cm after which it is cut at the height of 114cm. A final single sucker then selected, when it grows up to 183cm it is cut back to 168cm. Any additional suckers plucked off.

From the early stages, continuous, weeding is necessary to keep the field weed-free, improves water infiltration into the soil and gives better yields. Inter cropping with two crops like beans and even banana is desired at later stages to reduce soil erosion. Mulching can be used as a method of weed control and improving moisture retention by the soil. It is done after all weeds have cleared. Fertilizer like nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and magnesium are applied where soil fertility seems to exhaust. Where cattle and manure are available, they can also be used to improve the soil quality.

Harvesting Coffee

Harvesting coffee berries done by hand. Laborers hired to pick the coffee from the stalk for the high quality coffee; only the red-ripped berries are picked. This harvesting may start 3 to 4 years after planting. The harvesting interval is from 7 to 14 days. Some farmers dry the berries in the sun or collect to the centers then to be taken to the processing mills.

Coffee processing

The first step in processing is to separate the berries. At the mills, the outer skin removed from the berries pulping. Passing the berries through the machine to remove the cover the cover or pulping, then the beans are fermented. Fermentation can be done by heaping the beans for about 12 to 24 hours. Curing: Involves washing and sun drying. After curing the machines peel off two layers of inner husks. Then the beans winnowed and graded.       

After grading, they are packed in sacks for export. The importing countries roast the beans and then grind them into powder, which is letter used to make beverage.  

Note: Producing countries of coffee are Brazil, Uganda, Ethiopia, Angola, Senegal, Ivory Coast, Mexico, Indonesia, Guatemala, India, Kenya, Malagasy, Cameroon and Tanzania in Mbeya, Kilimanjaro, and Kagera.

Coffee can be Stored and Transported Through:

The coffee stored in warehouses awaiting its sale. These storage facilities must be well aerated to ensure the freshness of the beans. The bags of coffee are transported by road and railway to stores, factories and exporting ports.

2. Tea.

Tea is grown in many Tropical countries. It started in the valley in china during the 16^th century. It first introduced in East Africa in the year of 1900 at Entebbe in Uganda. In 1903, it was introduced in Tanzania and Kenya. In Tanzania, tea grown in Mbeya, Arusha, Iringa, Tanga and Kagera which the most common variety planted is Assam. 

Conditions for the tea growth:

1.      The ideal temperature ranges for growing tea is between 15⁰ and 30⁰C and should not be below 21⁰c during the growing period for eight months.

2.      The mean annual rainfall should be between 1400mm and 1750mm.

3.      Tea does well in plateaus and highland areas in the height of between 1500m and 2200m above the sea level.

4.      The soil should be deep and well drained but able to retain water for the plants.

5.      Soil pH should be slightly acidic with a pH of 4 to 6 with little calcium.

6.      A lot of shade used to be an essential factor in the early days as it helps to increase yields.

7.      Tea production is a labor-intensive activity, in field preparation, plating, weeding, pruning, picking and processing.

8.      Good roads are required to transport the green leaves from the farms to factories in a required time.

9.      Availability of capital is essential especially for the land preparation, planting and weeding.

Preparation of tea farms

Tea is mainly propagated from cuttings that are obtained from clones that have high yielding abilities and are of good quality. This is because seedlings take long in the nursery before they can be planted. The field is prepared when the cuttings are almost read for transplanting. Deep digging is important to turn the soil over. Hole should be at intervals of 0.7m or 0.9m and rows should be about 1.5m apart.

Planting and Caring Tea Crops:

1.      The cuttings for transplanting should be in the height about 20cm long.

2.      Transplanting done at the beginning of the rain season.

3.      Fertilizers and manure may be added to the soil before planting.

4.      Young tea plants may also be intercropped with other crops such as beans to act as Mulch and protect soil erosion. 

5.      Tea requires a lot of nitrogen before maturity hence nitrogenous fertilizers needed to the soil.

6.      Pruning by cutting the tips of the main stem and the branches so as each branch to form more branches. The braces grow later ally to form a frame.     

Forming frames for tea crops

Frames are formed in the following major three ways:

a)      Pegging

b)      Rings

c)      Formative pruning 

Formative pruning it is done so as to discourage vertical growth. The main stem cut at height of about 15 to 40cm. Pegging and use of Rings is meant to encourage lateral way (side-ways) growth of branches.

Tea harvesting

At two years, the tea bushes are ready for harvesting. Harvesting involves plunking the two top leaves and a bud including their tender at the tip of each shoot. The plucked leaves are thrown in the basket, which each picker carries.

Tea processing

The tea leaves have to be taken to the factory quickly for processing because their quality deteriorates fast. At the factory, the first stage is to weigh the green leaves. They are then spread on large troughs and then left to wither for 20 to 24 hours. Moisture content has to be carefully controlled to ensure the leaves retain at least 50% of the original moisture. This process is called withering and it determines the sweetness of the product.  

After withering, the leaves are passed through a set of rollers in a process known as rolling. The rollers break up the leaf cells and fibers. After rolling, the leaves are put in room with high temperature and humidity for about 3 to 4 hours; there they undergo fermentation or souring. After fermentation, the leaves dried by passing them through a drier at a temperature of about 104⁰C, this process called firing or roasting. It meant to stop further fermentation. Moisture in the leaves is reduced to about 30%. 

Storing and transporting tea

The processed tea is stored in large warehouses awaiting its sale. Tea is transported to factories and to customers by road, railway or by waterways.

Major world producers of tea

The leading tea producers of tea in the world are; India, China, Sri Lanka, Japan, former USSR, Kenya, Indonesia, Turkey, Bangladesh and Argentina.

 3. Sugar Cane.

Sugar cane is a tropical reed-like plant with a thick stem that contains a sweet liquid. It belongs to the saccharin family. Sugar cane is a tropical crop whose origin believed to be East Asia. It spread to the Middle East then to southern Europe that introduced to the other parts of the world by the European explorers. In Tanzania, sugar cane is grown or cultivated in Arusha at Chini and in Morogoro at Kilombero among others.

Conditions for Growing of Sugar cane:

1.      Sugarcane thrives best in hot climates with temperature ranging between 21⁰C and 27⁰C throughout the year.

2.      It needs abundant rainfall of at least 1270mm, if it grows without irrigation.

3.      Needs a well-drained soil.

4.      The ideal topography for growing sugar cane is gently sloping land.

5.      Infrastructure is required for transporting the sugar cane to the factories.

6.      Sugar cane growing requires a lot of capital to pay workers and buy or use machinery such as Tractors and Lorries.

7.      A lot of labors are needed.

Preparation of Farm for Sugar cane Growth

The fields to be planted is best prepared through ploughing by using tractors with wheels are used where the soil is manageable. On clay and black soil, crawler tractors are used because they do not stuck in the soil. When the land is ready, shallow furrows are made across the field. These are made in estimate 1.2m to 1.8m apart.

Planting and Caring Sugar cane

Sugar cane grown from cuttings of older sugar cane stems, which are between 8 and 14 months old. Each cutting has three nodes (called sets). The sets are laid in furrows horizontally, next to each other. In the growth of these sets forms a cluster of new shoots called stool. Weeding is done in 3 to 4 times before harvesting. Weeding also is done when the plants are still young and short. Some farmers they use herbicides to kill the weeds.

Harvesting Sugar cane

In East Africa the crop, take about 14 months to mature at coast while in the plateaus it may take up to 22 months. The cane harvested by cutting it at the base and removing the crown leaves. The cane has to be cut and delivered to the processing mills within 48 hours. The cut cane is collected by hand and loaded onto tractors or Lorries. On large plantation, loading may be done by mechanical means.

Sugar Cane Processing

At the factory, the cane first weighed while still on the Lorries or tractors. After it is offloaded it put in large tanks where it is washed. It then cut into pieces. The pieces are fed into rollers, which squeeze out the juice. The remanding fibers, known as bagasse is dried and used as fuel for the boilers. The juice is then put in boilers called evaporators. It boiled until it turns into thick syrup.

The syrup passed onto a vacuum pan under very low pressure to form a dark brown mixture of sucrose crystals and molasses called massecuite. This mixture is put in tanks called crystallizers where the sugar crystals grown. The resultant sugar in brown and has large crystals. The sugar undergoes further refining to produce brown and white sugars. The various grades of sugar are then packed in bags ready to be transported to the market.

How Sugar cane can be Stored and Transported?

The sugar is stored in bags of various sizes in large warehouse. It then transported to the market using Lorries, ships trains, or airplanes.

Major World Producers of Sugar cane

Leading producers of sugar cane are Brazil, India, Mexico, Pakistan, USA, Thailand, Australia, Colombia, South Africa and Indonesia. Other countries are Tanzania, Sudan, Uganda and Kenya.

 4. Wheat.

Wheat is a grass crop whose botanical name is Triticum spp. The grain is ground into flour, which is then used to make food such as breads and cakes.

Categories of Wheat

In a broad basis, wheat is classified into two groups based on the seasons of sowing:

(i) Winter wheat: is sown in late autumn or early winter and is ready for harvesting during early summer.

(ii) Spring wheat: is sown during spring and harvested in late summer or autumn.

Leading and Major Producers of Wheat

Leading and major producers of wheat are Russia, USA, China, India, Canada, France, Turkey, Australia, Pakistan, German, Romania, South Africa and Argentina. In East Africa Kenya is the leading producer followed by Tanzania.

Conditions for Growth of Wheat:

1.      It requires a temperature of about 15⁰C during the growing period and not exceeding 20⁰C.

2.      Require low rainfall that should be between 305mm and 1015mm.

3.      The suitable soils are light clay or deep loam soil and should be well drained and provide proper anchorage to wheat stalk.

4.      Rolling topography is good because it facilitates drainage and the use of machinery.

5.      Large-scale wheat production requires extensive areas of sparsely populated land, which farms can occupy.

How Land or Farm for Wheat Growth can be Prepared?

Land is first cleared from bushes, twigs and grass. It then ploughed, during the dry season. By time of planting, most weeds would have germinated with the wheat would have been killed.

In Which Way Wheat can be Planted and Cared?

In large farms, sowing is done by using tractor driven seed drills. In addition, herbicides applied to control weeds while in small-scale, farmers pull out the weeds.

How Wheat can be processed?

At the processing factory, the grains are cleaned several times to remove dirt such as stones, weed, seeds and any other kinds of unwanted items. Roller then crushes the grain. Where white wheat is desired, the grain covering separated from the inner part. The grain is then ground and sifted several times until the desired particle since are attained.

What can be the Real Storage and Transportation of Wheat?

The trucks and Lorries transport the grains to the stores for storage. After processing, the milled wheat is stored in warehouses in bags of various sizes, ready for transportation to the markets. Transportation is by use of Lorries, tractors, ships among others.

5. Maize

Botanic name of maize is Zea Mays. It has its origin among the Incas and Aztecs of South America. It is the staple food for many Latin America and African people. Explorers such as Columbus introduced it to Europe while Portuguese brought it to East African countries. Conditions for growth of maize are:

1.      The crops thrive in the tropical as well as in the warm temperate climates.

2.      Temperature of the day should be between 14⁰C (night) to 30⁰C (day).

3.      Annual rainfall needed for maize to grow is between 635mm to 1145mm and in Africa, annual rainfall between 300 to 1800mm.

4.      The soil should be deep and rich in nutrients. The soil also should be well drained.

5.      Altitude should be 2900m above sea level.

6.      Availability of labors is very important.

7.      Sufficient capital is highly needed for high scale plantations of maize.

8.      Sufficient storage of grain production is required.

9.      Market and transportation availability is needed.

How the Farm or Land for Growing Maize can be Prepared?

Tractor drawn plough is commonly used on large-scale farms to prepare the land. A field may be ploughed three times and harrowed up to five times to produce a fine soil. In small-scale farms, land preparation done by digging by using hoes and ox-drawn ploughs may be used.

How maize can be Planted and cared?

This is done at the beginning of the rainy season, unless it is grown under Irrigation. Planting it is done when the soil is dry or slightly wet. The space between hole and rows is determined by the type of maize variety and the prevailing climate. The space between holes may vary between 23cm and 30cm while the rows may be between 0.6m and 0.9m apart.

 Fertilizers are widely used because they increase yields. Regular weeding is done during the growing period until the crop reaches a height of 405cm. In drier areas, it is desirable to continue weeding until the plants start flowering. This is due to reduction of competition for moisture in the soil. Pesticides and insecticides used if possible.

How maize can be harvested?

Maize is left to dry in the field while it still on its stalk. On large farms, the stalks are cut and pilled in the field in pyramidal peaks called stocks. The maize cobs are later removed by hand after being dry.

How Maize can be processed?

Removing the seeds from the cob (shelling) is done by use of machines. Shelling is done by hand on small-scale farms. The grain is then winnowed to remove any impurities and poorly formed grains.

How Maize can be Stored and Transported?

The grain may be put in sacks for transportation to collecting or buying centers. Extensive farmers store their grain in grain silos. Depending on where the market is, the grain is transported using various means.

Major World Producers of Maize

The leading country produces of maize (commercially) are USA, France, China, Argentina, Brazil, India, Italy, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia and South Africa.

Category of Crops, and Leading Producers of Such Category of Crop:

Category	Crop	Leading Producing Countries
1. Cereals	(a) Rice	China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Bangladesh
	(b) Wheat	Russia, China, USA, India, Canada.
	(c) Maize	USA, China, Brazil, Russia, Romania, South Africa.
	Barley	Russia, China, Canada, UK, France.
	Oats	Russia, USA, Canada, Germany Poland.
2. Beverages	(a)Tea	India, China, Sri Lanka, Japan, Kenya.
	(b) Coffee	Brazil, Colombia, Cote d’Ivoire Mexico Uganda.
	(c) Cocoa	Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire, Brazil, Nigeria, Cameroon.
	(d) Sugar cane	India, Brazil, Cuba, China, Mexico.
3. Fibres	(a) Cotton	USA, Russia, China, India, Brazil.
	(b) Flax	Russia, Poland, France, Romania, Egypt
	(c) Jute	China, India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Brazil.
	(d) Sisal	Brazil, Tanzania, Kenya, Angola, Madagascar.
4. Animal Fibres	(a) Wool (sheep)	Australia, Russia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa
	(b) Silk	Japan, China, South, Korea Russia, India.
5. Industrial Crops	(a) Rubber	Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka.
	(b) Palm oil	Malaysia, Nigeria, Indonesia, India Cote d’Ivoire
	(c) Coconuts	Philippines, Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia.
	(d) Soya beans	USA, China, Brazil, Argentina.
	(e) Tobacco	China, USA, India, Brazil, Russia
6. Fruits	(a) Apples	USA, France, Italy, Germany, Poland.
	(b) Citrus fruits	USA, Brazil, Japan, Italy, Spain.
	(c) Date	Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Indonesia, Ecuador, Thailand.

Tab. 2.1: World leading producers of different crops

General Advantages (Importance) of (Growing) Cash Crops in a Country:

(1)   They encourage development of industries, for example the cultivation of cotton lead to the development textile industries.

(2)   They contribute to generation of capital and the government revenue.

(3)   They stimulate the development of transport and communication systems.

(4)   They lead to the creation of employment opportunities.

(5)   Encourage the improvement of the living standard of people in a country.

Agricultural Activities in Tanzania

Agriculture in Tanzania is the sector that employs about 80% of Tanzanians. Nevertheless, the majority of Tanzanians they engage in small-scale agriculture and minority in large-scale agriculture. Apart from providing employment, agriculture in Tanzania provides food and raw materials that needed in industries. The following is the table that shows crops production in Tanzania:

Crops	Areas of Production
1. Cashew nuts	Mtwara, Ruvuma, (Tunduru), Lindi, Coast region, Dar es salaam and Tanga
2. Tobacco	Tabora, Ruvuma, Iringa, Mbeya, Rukwa, (Mpanda), and Kagera (Biharamro and Ngara).
3. Cotton	Mwanza, Shinyanga, Tabora, Mbeya (Chunya and  Mbozi),  Morogoro.
4. Sugar cane	Morogoro, Mwanza, Rukwa, Arusha, Kagera.
5. Tea	Iringa, Mbeya, Kilimanjaro and Tanga (Usambara).
6. Cloves	Zanzibar and Pemba
7. Pyrethrum	Iringa, Mbeya, Arusha, Manyara (Mbulu and Hanangi), Moshi.
8. Sisal	Morogoro, Coast region, Lindi, Mtwara, Tanga.
9. Groundnuts	Dodoma, Rukwa, Mbeya, Iringa, Singida, Tabora, Shinyanga, Kigoma, Tanga, Mtwara and Ruvuam.
10. Coconuts	Mtwara, Lindi, Mafia, Zanzibar, Pemba, Dar es salaam, Coast region, Tanga and Morogoro.
11. Wheat	Arusha, Manyara, Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Iringa, (Ludewa) and Ruvuma (Songea).

Tab. 2.2: Crop production as distributed in Tanzania

Problems or Challenges or Limitations Facing Cash Crop Production in Tanzania

The following are some of the problems facing cash crop production in Tanzania:

1.      Diseases and pests that attacks the crops both in the farms and in or at the storage facilities.

2.      Price fluctuation in the market, which tends to discourage farmers.

3.      Poor transport and communication systems.

4.      Poor climate conditions like unreliable rainfall, which sometimes can be too much or sometimes too little.

5.      Decline of soil fertility due to over cultivation of the farms and leaching.

6.      Frequent fires that end up devastating (destroying) the crops in the farms.

7.      Conflicts between farmers and pastoralists like at Kilosa in Morogoro region

8.      Low level of technology associated with the used of simple tools.

9.      Rapid population growth, which has forced people to concentrates on food crop production rather than on cash crop production.

Limitations (Drawbacks) of Large-scale Farming in Tanzania:

1.      Low capital for investment.

2.      Land is becoming smaller and smaller due to the increase in population and land degradation.

3.      There are frequent tribal conflicts like those in Mara and Morogoro between pastoralists and agriculturalists.

4.      There is poor support from the government.

5.      Climatic problems like drought and too much rainfall that causes floods.

6.      Price fluctuations and especially low prices that discourage the farmers.

7.      Rural-urban migration leads to the problems of labor supply.

8.      Mismanagement of funds set for agriculture.

9.      Poor agricultural policies.

Land Conflicts in Africa

 African continent faced with many land conflicts. The following are some of the major causes of land conflicts in Africa:

1. Population pressure that has led to the shortage of land in some areas.
2. Poor Agricultural policy which does not state properly on how to undertake agricultural activities.
3. Lack of land tenure, such that farmers are not given special land to own.
4. Poverty that makes people keeps on depending on the land rather than investing in other sectors of economy.
5. Customs and traditions by which farmers keep on claiming the ownership of land left by their ancestors who were the clan members.
6. Some tribes like portraying their superiority over other tribes
7. Environmental problems like soil degradation and lack of land for pasture have made farmers to be in conflict when migrating to new area in search of better land for cultivation or pasture.
8. Colonial legacy in which the foreigners were favored more than the indigenous people to own land in the country.

Measures to be taken so as to alleviate the Problem of Land Conflicts in Africa

The following measures should be taken so as to avoid the problems of land conflict in any country of Africa:

1.      Other activities apart from agriculture should be created so as to reduce conflict on land.

2.      The farmers should be encouraged to control population increase.

3.      Government should formulate good policies that govern agricultural activities and land ownership.

4.      Capital should be given to the farmers so as they can be able to invest in better agricultural methods in order to make production very high in a small area or small number of animals.

5.      Farmers should be encouraged to settle in one place to avoid clashes and conflicts.

Contributions of Cash Crop Farming to the Economy of USA and Tanzania

The United States of America (USA) unlike Tanzania is an industrialized country. It is among the world’s leading economic powers. As such, its agriculture is very advanced. Tanzania is the second to Brazil in sisal production worldwide. The following are some of the contributions of cash crop faming in both Tanzania and USA:

1.      Cash crops provide raw materials to the industries hence lead to the development of industries.

2.      Cash crops farming are the source of income to many farmers is USA and Tanzania.

3.      Cash crop act as the source of foreign exchange in USA and Tanzania.

4.      Reduces or eliminate the burden of importation at cash crop from other countries on the two countries. This is because there are abundant cash crops in these countries.

5.      Production of cash crops has led to the improvement of transport and communication in the areas where cash crops are grown.

6.      Cash crops production has led to the provision of employment opportunity to the people.

Problems Facing Large Scale Agriculture in USA and Tanzania:

1. Climatic hazards. Large scale agriculture is affected by several climatic hazards like extreme strong winds.

2. Pests and diseases. On large farms, an outbreak of pests and diseases destroys large area of crops.

3. Poor management. Mismanagement like embezzlement of funds provided to support the large farms is a big problem. This problem slows the development of large scale farming.

4. Deterioration of soil fertility. Loss of soil fertility caused by leaching due to high rainfall, monoculture, and frequent use of machinery. This is the problem because soil infertility reduces the productivity of crops.

5. Market flooding. This is due to the large amounts of products supplied to the people than what they want, hence low prices for agricultural products.

6. Expensive inputs. Large scale agriculture needs a lot of inputs hence farmers may not afford to buy them because they are many and are in high price.

7. Land encroachment. Large scale agriculture is practiced on very large pieces of land hence those who don’t have land may invade these farms thus leading to conflict.

Ways of Improving Large Scale Agriculture in Tanzania

The following are outlines of how Tanzania can solve these problems and therefore improve its large-scale agriculture:

1.      Expansion and improvement of agricultural storage facilities. This may reduce the losses of crop due to the spoilage. In addition, this may facilitate the farmers to store their products safely and for long period.

2.      Management improvement. The managers of large-scale farms should be trained and educated about proper financial managements so as to reduce chances of embezzlement and other forms of frauds.

3.      Protection of pests and diseases. This should be done through using clear monitoring and research on crops so as to detect the presence and treatment for the presence of any pests and disease that attacking the crops.

4.      To improve soil fertility. To improve soil fertility, fertilizers and manure should be used, so as to increase production. In addition, this can be improved through the application of mulching, and intercropping so as to reduce leaching.

5.      Provision of subsidies. Subsidies; refers to the government meeting part of the cost of something. Through the government, providing and offering subsidies on inputs such as fertilizers and seeds may encourage farmers to cultivate more crops, so as to expand large scale-agriculture in the country.

6.      Proper application of land encroachment. This can be alleviated through proper fencing of property offering jobs to those people living near the farms, or digging boreholes and building classroom among others 

LIVESTOCK KEEPING OR LIVESTOCK FARMING

Livestock refers to animals and birds kept or raised in a farm. Again, livestock keeping or pastoral farming or livestock farming it is referred to the rearing of animals and birds. Livestock farming can be distinguished into Traditional (subsistence) livestock farming and modern (commercial) livestock farming. Therefore, there are three major forms of livestock keeping:

1.      Pastoralism.

2.      Sedentary livestock keeping.

3.      Commercial livestock keeping.

Pastoralism

Pastoralism is the practice of rearing pasture-dependent animals such as cattle, goats, camels and sheep. Nomadism is the most common form of pastoralist in some region transhumance practiced. This is the seasonal movement of herdsmen in between low land and highland in search of water and pasture.

Sukuma, and Nyamwezi of Tanzania are some of the tribes that practice transhumance. There are reasons behind for the decline of pastoralism now days: Lack of land for pasture, Political boundaries and control. Education that given to the people about other better methods of animal keeping and Government policy that discouraging the method of keeping animals.

I. Traditional (Subsistence) Livestock Keeping

Traditional livestock keeping have the following forms: Nomadic pastoralism, Semi-nomadic or Semi sedentary pastoralism and Sedentary livestock keeping.

(a) Nomadic Pastoralism

Nomadic pastoralism is defined as livestock farming in which pastoralists constantly move from place to place in search of pasture and water. Nomadic pastoralism is also called nomadic herding.

A parson who moves from one place to another in search of pasture and water is a nomad. Examples of tribes that practice this system of livestock keeping are; Fulani in Nigeria, Maasai in Tanzania and Kenya, Nubi in South Africa among others. The following are some of the characteristics of nomadic pastoralism:

1.      Cattle kept for prestige, paying bride price and not for sale.

2.      The breading process is uncontrolled.

3.      The herds of animals are large in size.

4.      The land is communally owned.

5.      The diseases are common because of poor care given to animals e.g. Farmers do not vaccinate their animals.

6.      Low technology is involved.

7.      Animals are of poor quality (poor health) and of low value.

8. The method is not expensive.

9. There is no permanent settlement as farmers move constantly with their animals.

10. The is a no crop cultivation and here animals are the sole base or support of the family life.

11. Many animals are grazed on the same area.

12. The system takes place where there is sparse population.

Advantages of nomadic pastoralism:

1.      The system is cheap; it does not need advanced technology or sophisticated tools.

2.      It assures the family the availability of food especially when the animals are so many.

3.      The traditional varieties of animals are resistant to diseases and other environmental hardships.

Disadvantages of nomadic pastoralism:

1. Animals give poor production and are of low value.
2. Many animals die due to lack of disease and pests control.
3. A farmer waster a lot of time moving from place to place.
4. Cause desertification and soil erosion due to overgrazing and movement of many animals from one place to another.
5. It cannot take place where there is high population.

(b) Semi-Nomadic (Semi-Sedentary) Pastoralism

Semi-nomadic pastoralism is the system whereby animal keepers start settling and growing crops apart from keeping animals. Examples of tribes practicing this are Sukuma (Tanzania) and Karamanjong (Uganda).   

(c) Sedentary Livestock Farming

It is the system by which farmers keep animal while settled permanently in one place. Factors that made to the shift from nomadic to sedentary pastoralism:

1.      The advancement in technology and the increase in the level of education among the people.

2.      The increase in the size of population has led to the decrease in the size of the pastureland in which discourages nomadic system.

3.      Government policies that encourage animal keepers to settle rather than moving from places to place.

4.      The reactions by the environmentalists, which encourage environmental conservation by avoiding shifting animal keeping.

5.      Pastoralists themselves have engaged in other activities like crop production, fishing hence permanent settlement established to them.

Characteristics of sedentary livestock farming:

1. The method uses more advanced technology than in nomadic technology.
2. The number of animals is not so high, that can be managed easily.
3. The animals kept in sheds; some can be fed using fodder as zero grazing.
4. There is high possibility of animal diseases control.
5. The system can take place where there is high population.

Note: Zero grazing is the situation in which animals given feeds in their shed without making them to go into the field to obtain pastures.

Advantages of sedentary livestock keeping:

1.      The animals are healthy and hence breeding is high.

2.      Since a limited number of animals kept, there is better care of animals in terms of disease control and food supply.

3.      Pastoralists do not waste time moving from place to place.

4.      It encourages the improvement of environment and its resources (environmental conservation)

5.      It enable pastoralists to engage in other activities like agriculture

6.      Manure can be used in the gardens and other crops in the farms.

7.      Farmers get balanced diet since there is availability of both proteins and carbohydrates.

8.      Pest and disease control is frequently done.

9.      This type of livestock keeping is carried out in a small size of land.

10. It is suitable to the populated areas.

II. Commercial Livestock Keeping

Commercial livestock keeping refers to the rearing of livestock for meat, milk or wool, which is then sold to earn income. Alternatively, it is the system of keeping animals and birds for commercial purpose, for example ranches and dairy farming.  Ranch is the rearing of livestock on an extensive piece of land while Dairy farming is the rearing of livestock for the production of milk.

Benefits of Livestock Farming in any Country

1.      Livestock are source of food, like milk and meat.

2.      The hides and skins of some animals are used traditionally as clothing and for making leather to make bags, shoes and belts.

3.      Act as source of income to the farmers from sold animals, meet and other animal’s products.

4.      Livestock keeping and industries that process livestock products provide employment opportunities.

5.      Livestock keeping encourages development of industries that process animal products.

6.      Livestock keeping is the source of revenue through taxes collected to the animal owners.

Problems Facing Livestock Keeping in any country:

1.      Insufficient capital to buy inputs like pesticides and pay for animals, medicine, medical services and tax.

2.      Poor efficient due to the use of little or no technology.

3.      Change of climate that may lead to the shortage of water and pastures. 

4.      Attacked by pests and disease that lead to loss of livestock.

5.      Absent of clear market or drop in demand for livestock products.

6.      Lack of proper and adequate training on livestock keeping leads to low production and losses.

Solutions to the Problems Facing Livestock Keeping:

1.      The government has to subsidize inputs such as pesticides to make them affordable.

2.      Farmers should be encouraged to adopt modern technology of livestock keeping so as improve their production.

3.      Eradication of disease that attacks animals through treating and vaccinating livestock.

4.      Various breeds that are suitable for various climatic conditions should be developed.

5.      Proper care and feeding should be considered in order to increase the value and quality of livestock and their products.

6.      Transport and infrastructure should also be improved in order to increase the supply of livestock and their products in the market

7.      Farmers should be educated and trained on the best livestock keeping methods.

Animal Husbandry in Tanzania

Livestock production is one of the major agricultural activities in Tanzania. The sector contributes to national food supply and GDP. Action taken by the government to ensure that livestock keepers obtain formals legal recognition of traditional grazing rights as envisaged in the new land act.

Forms of Livestock Keeping in Tanzania

The following are outlines of the forms of livestock keeping in Tanzania:

1. Pastoralism: This type of livestock keeping is practiced by communities living in areas that have a lot of land for pasture, for example the Maasai, Sukuma, Nyamwezi among others. Most of these communities in the country practice semi-nomadic where they have permanent homes but move their livestock to greener pastures when their home areas are dry. Cattle are the main type of livestock kept.

2. Sedentary livestock keeping: Communities that live in areas with a high population like in urban and semi-urban areas of Tanzania practice sedentary livestock keeping. Dairy cattle are the main type of livestock kept. Cattle kept in zero grazing while other animals are kept in their shelters.

3. Commercial livestock keeping: This practiced where extensive land is easily available. It is carried out in both the highlands and dry areas of the county. Cattle, sheep and goats are the main types of livestock kept. In this, animals often given food supplements, especially those kept for dairy purposes. In ranches, many animals are kept and there is little or no food supplements given to the livestock.

4. Subsistence livestock keeping: This refers the keeping of livestock for consumption by the farmers and his or her family. It is practiced by all communities in Tanzania. The main livestock kept are cattle, goals and chicken. The farmers do not feed the animals any food supplement except salt for cattle, goats and sheep.

Economic Importance of Livestock in Tanzania

The following are reasons of livestock keeping being important economically in Tanzania:

1. Source of food.
2. Important for industrial development.
3. Source employment opportunity.
4. Source of government revenue.
5. Promote for trade development.
6. Facilitate for development and improvement of transport.

Comparison and Contrast of Livestock Keeping in Australia and Tanzania

Livestock keeping in Tanzania and Australia has some similarities and differences as follow:

Similarities:

1. In both countries, there are common types of livestock kept; that is cattle, goats, sheep and poultry.
2. Animals and animals’ products sold in both countries. Some of the common products include meat and milk.
3. Livestock keeping in both countries practiced at both of subsistence and commercial level.
4. Sedentary livestock keeping practiced in both countries; this done in areas that are highly populated.
5. Dairy farming in both countries carried out in areas that have adequate rainfall and plenty of grass.
6. Ranching in Tanzania and Australia carried out in the sparsely populated areas. In Tanzania, National Ranching Company (NARCO) owns this.

Differences:

1. In Australia more scientific methods are employed in the management and running of livestock keeping compared to Tanzania.
2. Livestock keeping in Australia is more advanced than in Tanzania especially in the use of machinery like in milking and sheep shearing.
3. The breads of livestock reared in Australia yield more than those kept in Tanzania.
4. Livestock kept in Tanzania geared more towards meeting local demand. In Australia, it is geared towards the export market.
5. In Tanzania, the main types of livestock kept are cattle while in Australia the main type of livestock kept are sheep.
6. Pastoralism and sedentary livestock keeping are the main type of livestock keeping practiced in Tanzania while in Australia, ranching is the main type of livestock keeping.  

TRIAL QUESTIONS

1. Define the following terms:                              

a)      Subsistence agriculture.                                

b)      Commercial agriculture.                               

c)      Transhumance.                                                

d)      Shifting cultivation.                                         

e)      Arable farming.                                               

f)        Horticulture.                             

g)      Extensive farming.                                   

h)      Pastoral farming.

i)        Multi cropping (poly culture).

j)        Bush fallowing.

k)      Floriculture.

l)        Intensive farming. 

m)    Fallowing.

n)      Agriculture.

o)      Monoculture.

p)      Mixed farming.

q)      Zero grazing.                                                                  

2. Outline the main characteristics of small-scale agriculture at a subsistence level.

3. What are the advantages of small-scale agriculture in Tanzania?

4. Identify the disadvantages of small-scale agriculture at a subsistence level.

5. Show how subsistence small-scale agriculture can be improved in Tanzania.

6. Identify the effects of rapid population growth on people’s life quality.

7. Describe how population pressure can affects the subsistence small-scale agriculture.

8. Identify the ways through which women contribute in small-scale agriculture in Africa.

9. What problems are women facing in their participation in small-scale agriculture?

10. Show the characteristics of:

a)      Shifting cultivation.

b)      Sedentary subsistence farming.

11. Identify and explain the advantage and disadvantages of the following:

a)      Shifting cultivation.

b)      Sedentary agriculture.

c)      Bush fallowing.

12. Outline the problems facing small-scale agriculture in your country.

13. Explain the way of improving small-scale agriculture in Tanzania.

14. State the difference between subsistence small-scale agriculture and commercial large-scale agriculture.

15. Outline the factors hindering the development of large-scale agriculture in Tanzania.

16. What are the problems caused by large farming in any country?

17. (a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of plantation agriculture?

       (b) What are the major requirements for the development of plantations in any Country?

18. Show main six characteristics of plantation agriculture.

19. List six crops that are involved in the plantation agriculture and mention areas where they are grown.

20. Mention the areas where wheat, cotton, sisal, ground runts, coconuts, tea, and sugarcane are grown in Tanzania.

21. Define and write short notes on the following terms;

a)      Ranch.

b)      Ranching.

c)      Mulching.

d)      Beef farming (beef production).

e)      Dairy farming.

f)        Destalking.

22. Mention the ranches that found in Tanzania.

23. What are the factors hindering the development of ranches in Tanzania?

24. Identity the advantages and disadvantages of ranching in Tanzania.

25. Outline the factors that have led to the development of beef farming in USA.

26. Shows the role of sheep farming to the economy of South Africa.

27. Identify the measure can be used in combating the problems facing large-scale farming in East Africa.

28. How does the rapid population grown affects livestock farming in Africa?

29. Show the effects of livestock farming on the environments.

30. Why is mixed farming more developed in the USA Corn Belt than in Tanzania?

31. Name and explain in short two plantation crops and two cereal crops grown on large scale agriculture in Tanzania.

32. (a) Describe five conditions that favor tea growing

      (b) Describe how tea is processed in the factory

       (c) Name three major producer of tea in the word.

33. (a) Describe the main characteristics of pastoralism.

      (b) Explain how livestock keeping in Australia differ from that in Tanzania.

34. (a) The activities known as agriculture is now days including ____________, __________________ and __________________.

       (b) What do you understand by the term “zero grazing”?